White athletes have a positive correlation with alcohol use whereas black athletes were found to have the inverse relationship. Several studies correlate athletes on teams with higher alcohol use compared to individual sport athletes but this is not consistent among all sports with one study showing male hockey and female soccer athletes more likely to report substance use and male basketball and cross country/track athletes reporting lower levels. Another systematic review indicated higher levels of alcohol use and violence in the athletic population compared to non-athletes. In adolescent and young adult athletes, a systematic review found 82% of included studies showing a positive relationship between alcohol use and sports participation and 50% of studies found negative association between participation in sports and marijuana use. Involvement in athletics appears to be inversely related to cigarette smoking and illicit drug use. Collegiate student-athletes drink more drinks per week, drink more frequently, consume larger amounts often in correlation with level of athletic involvement, and are more likely to drink for social reasons. Use of stimulants, prescription opioids and smokeless tobacco products has a higher prevalence in this subset of the population and use of steroids and alcohol along with smokeless tobacco was more commonly used in collegiate athletes compared to their non-athlete counterparts. There is a need for more rigorous, high-quality studies to look at addiction as a whole and in particular how to approach this vulnerable subset of the population.Īlcohol, nicotine, cannabis, stimulants and prescription opioids are the most commonly used substances among elite athletes but overall consumption is lower in professional sports than in the general public. This review attempts to highlight some of the data regarding the field of substance misuse and addiction in the athletic population as well as explore possible future directions for treatment including Neuromodulation methods and Ketamine. Prevention strategies must continue to be improved and more systems need to be in place to find and treat any underlying causes leading to these behaviors. With concerns for side effects that may affect performance coupled with organizational rules and high rates of recidivism in the general population, newer treatments must be investigated. The addiction field as a whole has very few answers to how to prevent and secondarily treat substance use disorders and the treatments overall do not necessarily agree with the role of being an athlete. Substance use has surrounded sports since ancient times and the pressures associated with competition sometimes can increase the likelihood of use and subsequent misuse. Substance use, misuse and use disorders continue to be major problems in society as a whole and athletes are certainly not exempt.
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